Reading objectives: (a) Understanding some of the mainstream theories of motivation, (b) Explaining human motivation in relation to internal biological processes versus external environmental stimuli and (c) getting a sense of the importance of an intervening variable in psychological research.
Theories of Motivation
Mainstream psychology courses dedicate a good section to teaching motivation theories. Understanding the classic and some of the modern contemporary theories of motivation is imperative for both students of psychology and for anyone interested in unlocking the full potential of motivation in personal life, career activities and entrepreneurial success.
An interesting point that strikes a reader of various mainstream psychology course books is that motivation is not directly observable and must be inferred. As Bernstein, Penner, Clarke-Stewart and Roy (2008) point out, motivation is an intervening variable, that is:
“We have to infer, or presume, that motivation is present from what we can observe. So psychologists think of motivation, whether it be hunger or thirst or love or greed, as an intervening variable—something that is used to explain the relationships between environmental stimuli and behavioural responses” (Bernstein, Penner, Clarke-Stewart, Roy, 2008, p. 404).
As Bernstein et al., (2008) points out above, an intervening variable plays an important role in the field of psychology and certainly motivation as an intervening variable demonstrates the importance of understanding an intervening variable and how to measure it reliably.
Overall there is wide agreement among scholars that sources of motivation can be categorized along four categories. These are biological (e.g., food and sex drive), emotional (e.g., love and anger), cognitive (e.g., inspirational, motivation to inspire and be inspired) and finally social factors (e.g., wearing cloths one’s best friends are wearing as a sign of social belonging and love of friends).
Classic theories of motivation, namely, the instinct theory, drive reduction theory and optimal arousal theory argue that motivation is triggered by deep rooted internal biological processes. Drive for sex and food are among the most basic drives classic theories of motivation point to in support of their position.
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Contrary to classic motivation theories, modern theories of motivation, such as the incentive theory argue that cognitive factors, rather than deeply rooted biological processes, are central drivers of human motivation. According to the incentive theory, external environmental cues trigger motivation through cognitive processes, that is, as Bernstein et al., point out, “according to incentive theory, then, differences in behavior from one person to another, or in the same person from one situation to another, can be traced to the incentives available and the value a person places on them at the time” (2008, 410).
Incentive theory of motivation emphasizes the role external, rather than internal, stimuli play in triggering human motivation. According to the incentive theory of motivation cognitive factors play a major role in human motivation. Incentive theory of motivation has influenced many of the modern theories of motivation, especially theories of motivation in organizational settings.
In modelling motivation in organization, expectancy theory of motivation has been popular. Expectancy theory draws its flavor from of the incentive theory of motivation. Expectancy theory, first developed by Vroom in 1960s (Vroom 1964) and later on refined under the theory of valence–instrumentality–expectancy, argues that people make conscious choices between alternatives. The main cognitive elements of the expectancy theory is that alternatives are examined with respect to valance, instrumentality and expectancy. In expectancy theory, valance means value. The theory maintains that the expected satisfaction of an outcome is a central driver of behavior.
In summing this overview, mainstream classic theories of motivation explain the process of motivation using inner biological processes. From early instinct theory, which greatly influenced the psychodynamic theory, to more modern optimal arousal theory, the biologically driven theories of motivation look to internal biological dynamics in explaining drivers of human action. With development of the cognitive theory from 1950s onward scholars began examining human motivation in relation to human thought process—cognition. One of the most popular cognitively driven theory of motivation, which influenced theory building in organizational settings, the expectancy theory, draws many of its flavor from the incentive theory of motivation. As noted above, the incentive theory bases its explanation on external environmental cues triggering motivation through cognitive processes. Finally, it is important to take note of motivation as an intervening variable, that is, we have to infer motivation from what we can observe and hence how motivation is indexed is very important to bear in mind.
References and suggested readings
Bernstein, D.A., L.A., Penner, A., Clarke-Stewart and E.J. Roy (2008). Psychology. Eight Edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
King, D., S., Lawley (2019). Organizational Behaviour. Oxford University Press
Vroom, V. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.